Evolution Bergstrom 2Nd Edition Torrent Trial Species Use

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From top left: Trilobite, Stylonurus, scorpion, crab, centipede, and butterfly.

Arthropods form the phylum Euarthropoda, 1 3 which includes insects, arachnids, myriapods, and crustaceans.

The term Arthropoda ( r r p d ) as originally proposed refers to a proposed grouping of Euarthropods and the phylum Onychophora.

They are distinguished by their jointed limbs and cuticle made of chitin, often mineralised with calcium carbonate.

The arthropod body plan consists of segments, each with a pair of appendages.

In order to keep growing, they have to go through moulting, which sheds their skin.

Arthropods are bilaterally symmetrical and their body possesses an external skeleton.

They are an extremely diverse group, with up to 10 million species.

Like their exteriors, the internal organs of arthropods are generally built of repeated segments.

Their nervous system is ladder-like, with paired ventral nerve cords running through all segments and forming paired ganglia in each segment.

Their heads are formed by fusion of varying numbers of segments, and their brains are formed by fusion of the ganglia of these segments and encircle the esophagus.

The respiratory and excretory systems of arthropods vary, depending as much on their environment as on the subphylum to which they belong.

In most species the ocelli can only detect the direction from which light is coming, and the compound eyes are the main source of information, but the main eyes of spiders are ocelli that can form images and, in a few cases, can swivel to track prey.

Arthropods also have a wide range of chemical and mechanical sensors, mostly based on modifications of the many bristles known as setae that project through their cuticles.

Evolution Bergstrom 2Nd Edition Torrent Trial Species Use

Similarly, their reproduction and development are varied; all terrestrial species use internal fertilization, but this is sometimes by indirect transfer of the sperm via an appendage or the ground, rather than by direct injection.

Aquatic species use either internal or external fertilization.

Almost all arthropods lay eggs, but many species give birth to live young after the eggs have hatched inside the mother, and a few are genuinely viviparous, such as aphids.

Arthropod hatchlings vary from miniature adults to grubs and caterpillars that lack jointed limbs and eventually undergo a total metamorphosis to produce the adult form.

The level of maternal care for hatchlings varies from nonexistent to the prolonged care provided by social insects.

The group is generally regarded as monophyletic, and many analyses support the placement of arthropods with cycloneuralians (or their constituent clades) in a superphylum Ecdysozoa.

Overall, however, the basal relationships of animals are not yet well resolved.

Likewise, the relationships between various arthropod groups are still actively debated.

Today, Arthropods contribute to the human food supply both directly as food, and more importantly indirectly as pollinators of crops.

Some species are known to spread severe disease to humans, livestock, and crops.

Calcification of the endosternite, an internal structure used for muscle attachments, also occur in some opiliones.